Colonial Williamsburg Digital Library

Charles Stagg, 1716-1735
and
Mary Stagg, 1735-1739

The Staggs were both dancing masters and actors. In conjunction with William Levingston, they operated on Palace Green the first theater in British America. In an indenture dated 11 July 1716 the Staggs agreed to perform plays and train actors and Levingston would build a theater (York County Orders and Wills XV, pp. 52-54).

Levingston was also the entrepreneur behind one of the earliest dancing schools in Williamsburg. In March 1716 he received permission from the College "to make use of the lower Room at the South end of the Colledge for teaching the Scholars and others to dance unti11 his own dancing school in Williamsburg be finished" (Virginia Magazine IV, p. 169) .

[The following comes from Jane Carson, Colonial Virginians at Play, 1965, pp. 24-27]:

For two decades the Staggs taught dancing classes in town and in homes throughout tidewater Virginia. Stagg's business arrangements with "King" Carter of Lancaster County were the customary ones: Once a·month he made a Circuit of the lower Northern Neck peninsula, stopping regularly at Corotoman, where five Carter children received a full day of dancing instruction. Another patron, Col. James Ball, lived just across Corotoman Creek, and Stagg often taught both groups of children gathered into one home.⁴¹ After the. 4. formal lessons were done, everybody joined in the dancing.⁴²

Fortunately it is possible to determine Stagg's teaching methods. When his estate was inventoried in 1736. along with prints, maps and a Bible were two copies of The Art of Dancing, one by J. 5. Weaver, the other by J. Essex.⁴³ Both of these are translations of the French authority, Raoul A. Feuillet.

John Weaver, London dancing master, made his first translation of Feuillet in 1706; a later edition (about 1715) in the Library of Congress bears this title: Orchesography or the Art of Dancing by Characters, and Demonstrative Figures. Wherein The whole Art is explain'd with compleat Tables of all steps us'd in Dancing, and Rules for the Motions of the Arms, &c. Whereby Any Person (who understands Dancing) may of himself learn all manner of Dances. Being An Exact and Just Translation from the French of Monsieur Feuillet.⁴⁴ Weaver acknowledged Feuillet's mastery of dance forms and praised his method of notation—an original combination of short hand and musical notes that show in one diagram the overall pattern of the dance, the successive steps and positions of each participant, and even the corresponding bars of music that accompany the dance.⁴⁵ If Stagg followed Weaver's example and studied Feuillet's designs carefully, he could teach his students to perform all the popular dance forms.

After Charles Stagg's death in 1735, Mary Stagg stayed on in Williamsburg teaching dancing and giving assemblies. William Byrd II wrote to his friend Sir John Randolph, "Upon the news of Mr Stags death Madame La Baronne de Graffenriedt is in hopes to succeed to part of his business in town…" (Virginia Magazine IX, p. 240) .

William Dering, 1737-1749

[The following comes from Graham Hood, Charles Bridges and William Dering: Two Virginia Painters, 1735-1750 (Williamsburg, 1978), pp. 99-101]:

BY an unusual coincidence, William Dering's name first appears in the colonial records within a month of that of Charles Bridges. Dering was in Philadelphia at the time and seems to have been, to some degree, already established:

Mr. Dering, Dancing-Master, gives this Publick Notice that he has now divided his School the Following Manner, viz. On Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays he teaches the more advanc'd Scholars, and on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays the young Ones: Every Friday Fortnight will be a publick Night, when the whole School will be together, and all Gentlemen and Ladies, desirous to see their Children or Friends dance, are welcome to come to the School. …⁶⁴

More information about his activities appeared in an advertisement almost a year later in the same newspaper:

At the House of William Dering in Mulberry-Street, is taught Reading, Writing, Dancing, Plain Work, Marking, Embroidery, and several other Works: Where likewise young Ladies and Gentlemen may be instructed in the French.⁶⁵

Dering apparently moved to the Williamsburg area a month or so before Bridges moved away to Hanover County. He advertised in the Virginia Gazette, November 25, 1737:

This is to give Notice, that this Day the Subscriber has opened his School at the College, where all Gentlemens Sons may be taught 8. Dancing, according to the newest French Manner, on Fridays and Saturdays once in Three Weeks, by
William Dering, Dancing-Master

Dering did not take up residence in Williamsburg immediately, however, since a debt suit entered in the York County court in 1739 described him as "Wm. Dering otherwise called J. Wm. Dering of the County of Glosr [Gloucester]." In August 1742 he bought from Mr. and Mrs. Henry Cary II two lots in Williamsburg, on which stood a house now called the Brush-Everard House, a Colonial Williamsburg exhibition building. By this time, to judge from William Byrd's diary, Dering had met and been accepted by a number of prominent planters. He was mentioned several times in Byrd's diary for the years 1740-1741, moving confidently among the tidewater gentry, supervising (presumably) "Dance day" at Mr. Cary's (June 16, 1741), playing the French horn, arriving from Shirley plantation, accompanying Mr. Walthoe, and so on. On July 31, 1741, Byrd specifically noted that he showed Dering his prints.⁶⁶

Dering's career as a dancing master continued through 1747. Described in a legal document of 1744 as "Of the City of Wmsburgh Dancing Master," he advertised balls and assemblies at the Capitol in March and October 1745 and September 1746. On May 1, 1747, the Council ordered Dering to be paid "the further Sum of £2 0 acct. of an Entertainmt made by him." Yet he seems to have led a continuously precarious existence financially, being plagued with debt suits during the period. He mortgaged the lots he had bought, together with his slaves and household furnishings, to Bernard Moore and Peter Hay, a mortgage that was assumed by Philip Lightfoot in 1745 and subsequently by his heir, William Lightfoot, in 1749. By December 1749 Dering had sought greener pastures and moved to 9. Charleston, South Carolina, where, in partnership with one Scanlan, he advertised a ball on December 18. He was still in Charleston in May 1751, having presumably left his wife to face the music in Williamsburg; John Blair noted in his diary for February 14, 1751, that he had attended "Mrs. Dering's outcry" [auction]. Nothing is subsequently known of him.⁶⁸

Listed among Dering's possessions in the mortgage schedule of May 1744 were "8 pictures in Guilt frames 9 Do. in black frames 10 Do. without frames." When the mortgage was transferred in May 1745, his possessions were enumerated again and included "44 pictures some gold some bla[ck] Frames," as well as "1 large hair Trunk with about 200 prints 1 paint box."⁶⁹ It is not unreasonable to surmise that Dering had acquired these important items from the departing painter Charles Bridges, and that he saw in them an opportunity to buttress his tottering finances by taking further advantage of his circle of acquaintances—among whom were counted precisely those members of society who could afford to buy portraits.

Christopher deGraffenriedt, 1720-1737
and
Barbara deGraffenriedt, 1737-1739

Christopher deGraffenriedt was the oldest son of Baron Christopher deGraffenriedt of Berne, Switzerland. (The baron brought a colony of Swiss and Palantine to North Carolina in 1710 and founded the settlement still, called New Bern.) "Our" Christopher was not a baron.

There is no evidence of when Christopher, the dancing master, came to the New World, but it is possible that he accompanied his father in 1710. He married Mrs. Barbara Needham Tempest in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1714 or 1715. They were in Williamsburg by 1720 and are associated with three town lots, which are marked on the plat following this page. (A detailed description of his acquisition of these lots appears in a 5 October 1972 letter by Mary R.M. Goodwin in the research query file in the Research Department.)

Christopher deGraffenriedt evidently gave entertainments in Williamsburg and taught dancing, going to nearby plantations to give lessons. In his diary for 1717-1721, William Byrd mentioned being in Williamsburg to attend Council and on 4 November 1720 going to Mr. de Graffenriedt's "ball, where I danced four dances and ate some plumcake." In January 1721, while visiting Colonel Nathaniel Harrison at Wakefield, Surry County, Byrd wrote, "… About 8 o'clock came Mr. Graffenried to teach the Colonel's children to dance"; and two days later they "danced country dances about two hours before we acted proverbs and Mr. Graffenried play to—be a good sort of man. [sic]" At Westover on 5 March 1721 Byrd wrote that after dinner "came Ben Harrison and Mr. Graffenried, but would not stay." 11 PHOTOSTAT COPY OF THE WILLIAMSBURG PLAT IN "WILLIAMSBURG. THE OLD COLONIAL CAPITOL" BY LYON: G. TYLER
The above plat shows, for the most part, mid to late 18th 12. (Wright and Tinling, eds., William Byrd, The London Diary, 1717-1721 [New York: Oxford University Press, 1958], pp. 471, 494, 495, 502.)

By 1737 Mrs. deGraffenriedt was giving the entertainments in town:

THIS is to give Notice, to all Gentlemen and Ladies, That Mrs. Barbara Degraffenriedt, intends to have a BALL on Tuesday the 26th. of next April, and an ASSEMBLY, on the 27th. in Williamsburg: For which, Tickets will be deliver'd out at her Hours. (Virginia Gazette, 25 February 1736/7.)

The last notice found in the surviving Virginia Gazettes reads

"Mrs. DeGraffenreidt's long Indisposition hath render'd her incapable of keeping an Assembly, as usual; but if they [the 'Gentlemen and Ladies'] please to expect of a Dance at her House in Williamsburg, on Wednesday the Second of May, she will find them a Room, Musick, Candles, and Liquors, for Five Shillings a Ticket." [Virginia Gazette, 20 April 1739]

Christopher died in Prince Edward County, Virginia, "on Sunday at sunrising, October 27th, 1742" and "Barbara his wife departed this life the 26th day of June, 1744." [Thomas P. deGraffenried, History of the deGraffenried Family 1191-1925 (New York, 1925), pp. 69-70, 149-151.]

James E. Morrison is mistaken about John Hay's being a dancing master and indentured servant of Madame deGraffenriedt. Her son Tscharner advertised that his servant Thomas Hay ran away from Prince George County and gave a very detailed description of the Irishman, concluding he "plays very well on the Violin, and pretends to teach Dancing …" (Virginia Gazette, 26 September 1745)

Stephen Tenoe, 1737

There is a single reference to this itinerant dancing master, an advertisement placed by Mr. Jones Irwin:

These are to give Notice to all Persons who employ Stephen Tenoe as a Dancing Master, that the said Stephen Tenoe is my servant, and hath been for near Two years past; and that all Sum and Sums of Money due for teaching (by him) to dance, is due and payable to me the Subscriber. And I do hereby forwarn all persons from paying him any Money, giving him Credit, or dealing with him, the said Tenoe, on any Account whatever, until he has discharg'd himself from all Obligations due to me; which shall be publickly advertised, when accomplished.

And I do inform all Gentlemen and Ladies, that want to learn to dance, or that have children to be taught, that he shall constantly attend his Schools at the several Places following viz: At Hampton, at Mr. Francis Hayward's, at York Town, and at Williamsburg; All those who have a mind to enter, may apply to me at York Town, and the Entrance Money shall remain in their hands 'til the Year is fulfilled, except Sickness or Death should prevent; and then the several Scholars to be paid for, in Proportion to the time they have been taught.

(Virginia Gazette, 6 April 1739)

Richard Coventon, 1750-1767

Richard Coventon was active as a dancing master in 1750 and probably earlier. John Mercer's ledger for 1750 shows accounts with "Mr. Covington the Dancing Master." In October of 1751 a newspaper advertisement for a ball appeared:

AT the Court-House in Williamsburg, on Thursday the 31st of October, I purpose to have a Ball for my Scholars: Such Gentlemen and Ladies who are pleased to favour me with their Company, may have Tickets at Half a Pistole each, at Mr. Finnie's, or from
Their most obedient humble Servant,
Richard Coventon.

N.B. The Doors will be open at Six o'Clock.

(Virginia Gazette, 24 October-1751)

His career was apparently a long one. For ten years, from 1757 through 1767, he was paid for instructing Elizabeth Reade, daughter of John Reade, deceased, of York County (William and Mary Quarterly, 1st ser., VI, p. 3).

The 1763 tithable list for Yorkhampton Parish includes Coventon, whose only tithable was himself. An advertisement in 1766 mentions him as a tenant (probably living in Yorktown proper because of the mention of a "Lot").

To be SOLD for ready money, in York town, the 11th of this Instant (October) The Lot & Houses where Mr. Richard Coventon now lives,
WILLIAM MOSS. (Virginia Gazette [Purdie and Dixon] 10 October 1766)

Chevalier de Peyroney, 1752

This Frenchman advertised his services as dancing master only once:

THE Subscriber, who lodges at Mr. Finnie's, [Raleigh Tavern] in Williamsburg, teaches the Art of Fencing, Dancing, and the French Tongue; and is ready to begin as soon as he can get a reasonable Number of Scholars.
Le Chevalier de Peyronny. (Virginia Gazette 20 March 1752, supplement)

[The following is from Jane Carson, Colonial Virginians at Play, 1965, pp. 30-33:]

George Washington, writing to Dinwiddie from Great Meadows June 12, 1754, recommended the Chevalier for promotion and summarized his Virginia career:

If merit, Sir, will entitle a gentleman to your notice, Mr. Peyrouny may justly claim a share of your favor. His conduct has been governed by the most consummate prudence, and all his actions have sufficiently testified his readiness to serve his country. which I really believe he looks upon Virginia to be. He was sensibly chagrined, when I acquainted him with your pleasure, of giving him an ensigncy. This he had twelve 16. years ago, and long since commanded a company. He was prevailed on by Colonel Fry, when he left Alexandria, to accept the former commission, and assist my detachment, as I had very few officers, till we all met on the Ohio, which commission he would now have resigned, and returned to Virginia, but for my great dissuasion to the contrary. I have promised to Solicit your Honor to appoint him adjutant, and continue him ensign, which will induce a very good officer to remain in the regiment.⁵⁵

Two months later the Frenchman came to Williamsburg to petition the Assembly for an allowance for loss of clothes and other expenses in the Ohio campaign and to carry Washington's personal plea to Dinwiddie for relief for his naked, unpaid soldiers. While he was in town, Peyroney wrote this letter to his commanding officer:

AS I imagine you By this time, plung'd in the midst of Dellight heaven can aford: & enchanted By Charms even Stranger to the Ciprian Dame. I thought it would Contribute a litle to the variety of yours amusemens to send you few lines to peruse.

I Shan't make Bold to Describe the procedings of the house, which no doute you have had already Some hint Of. I only will make use of these three expressions related to those of the oracle: furtim venerunt } invane Sederunt } & perturbate Redierunt}

But all that is matere of indifference to the wirginia Regiment Collo. Washington will still Remain att the head of it, and I spect with more esplendor than ever: for (as I hope) notwithstanding we will Be on the British stabishment, we shall be augmented to Six houndred & by those means entitle you to the Name not only of protector of your Contry But to that of the flower of the wirginians, By the powers you'll have in your hands to prove it So.—

Many enquired to me about Muses Braveries; poor Body I had pity him han't he had the weakness to Confes his coardise him self, & the impudence to taxe all the reste of the oficiers withoud exeption of the same imperfection. for he said to many of the Consulars and Burgesses 17. that he was Bad But th' reste was as Bad as he:—

To speak francly had I been in town at that time I cou'nt help'd to make use of my horse's wheap for to vindicate the injury of that vilain.

he contriv'd his Business so that several ask me if it was true that he had challeng'd you to fight: my answer was no other But that he should rather chuse to go to hell thand doing of it, for had he had such thing declar'd: that was his Sure Road—

I have made my particular Business to tray if any had some Bad intention against you here Below: But thank God I meet allowais with a goad wish for you from evry mouth each one entertaining such Caracter of you as I have the honnour to do my Self who am the Most humble
And Obedient of your Servants
Le Chevalier De Peyroney

September 5, 1754
his honour the Governor did Grand me the Capt. Comission after having being recomand to him from the house of Burgess and parlement and you Sir to whom I am infinitly oblig'd if th' was your pleasure I should stay some few dais more here below I should take it as a great favour not beeng yet well relaevd from my wond I beg'd it already from the governor which granted. I hope the same indulgence from you when you'll be pleased to send me your orders my adress is at Williamsburg at Mr. finis?⁵⁶

"George Muse, late Lieutenant-Colonel," was specifically excepted from the Burgesses' vote of commendation to the officers of the Virginia Forces,⁵⁷ but Peyroney received his captain's commission in August.⁵⁸

18.

The following summer Washington sent in his terrible report of Braddock's engagement on the Monongahela. Out of his three Virginia companies, he wrote, only thirty men remained alive; "Captn. Peyrouny and all his Officer's, down to a Corporal, were killed… I luckily escap'd with't a wound tho' I had four Bullets through my Coat and two Horses shot under me."⁵⁹

It is to be regretted that so little is known of the gallant young Frenchman, so like Lafayette, who was staying at the Raleigh Tavern when he advertised for dancing students and again when he was Washington's emissary to Dinwiddie. Whether he stayed on in town, teaching, until he went to the Ohio isn't known. He joined Colonel Joshua Fry in Alexandria early in 1754; perhaps he was living there at the time when he decided to "serve his country,… Virginia… "

William Fearson, 1769-1777

Fearson was already established in Williamsburg as a dancing master in 1769. Anne Blair's 21 August 1769 letter to her sister mentions him:

I suppose she [young Betsey Braxton, a visitor at the Blair's home in Williamsburg] will tell you tomorrow is Dancing day, for it is her thoughts by Day & her dreams by night. Mr. Fearson was surprized to find she knew much of the Minuet step, and could not help asking if Miss had never been taught, so you find she is likely to make some progress that way. (William and Mary Quarterly, 1st ser., XVI, 174-80)

Three Gazette advertisements show that Fearson hired violinists, who very likely provided accompaniment during his dance lessons.

Williamsburg, Sept. 14, 1769.

WANTED, to buy or to hire,
AN orderly Negro or Mulatto man, who can play well on the violin. Whoever has such a one may have good wages, or a good price, and ready money, if to be sold. Enquire of the Printer, or apply to
WILLIAM FEARSON.

(Virginia Gazette [Rind] 14 September 1769)

AUGUST 15, 1771.

RUN away from Williamsburg, on Sunday last, a Convict Servant Man named ANDREW FRANKS, a Ropemaker by Trade, and can play very well on the Violin. He is about six and twenty Years of Age, five Feet five or six inches high, wears his own black Hair, which curls behind, and had on a light brown Duroy Coat and Waistcoat, and white Breeches. He has a remarkable Scar of his Breast, and is pretty fond of strong Drink. As it is probable he will endeavour to get out of the Country, all Masters of Vessels are forewarned from taking him on Board; and I hereby offer a Reward of THIRTY SHILLINGS, besides what the Law allows, to any Person who will deliver him to me at Williamsburg, or secure him in any jail; if taken out of the Colony, FIVE POUNDS.
WILLIAM FEARSON.

(Virginia Gazette [Purdie and Dixon] 15 August 1771)

WILLIAMSBURG, November 4, 1773.

RUN away from the Subscriber, the Negro Boy so well known in this City by the Name of FIDDLER BILLY, who is of a yellowish Cast, smart, and likely. He belongs to the Estate of Edward Nicholson, deceased; and I hired him of Mr. Benjamin Weldon, the Executor. Whoever delivers him to me shall have 20s. Reward, besides what the Law allows; and I hereby forewarn all Persons from harbouring him.
WILLIAM FEARSON

(Virginia Gazette [Purdie and Dixon] 4 November 1773)

Fearson's death was reported in two editions of the Virginia Gazette for 23 May 1771. Purdie's paper identified him as "of New Kent county" and added that he died "suddenly, at Tuckaho, in Goochland."

Four months later his widow made this appeal:

NEW KENT County, Sept. 8, 1777.

THE Subscriber being desirous of settling the Estate of her deceased Husband William Fearson, desires all Persons indebted to him to make Payment as soon as possible, and those who have any demands against him are desired to make them known immediately, to Col. William Clayton of New Kent County.
DOROTHY FEARSON, Executrix.

(Virginia Gazette [Dixon] 19 September 1777)

Sarah Hallam, 1775-1792

Sarah Hallam probably grew up in Jamaica. There she married actor Lewis Hallam, Jr., and they came to Williamsburg in 1758. Called "the father of the American theater," Lewis, Jr., was reported to have been a talented actor and skillful at both dancing and fencing. Sarah seldom performed at the Williamsburg theater, according to surviving playbills, due to either the lack of talent or of inclination.

Deserted by her husband, Sarah and her son named Mirvan Hallam remained in Williamsburg. In August 1775 all three Virginia Gazettes carried the announcement that she was beginning a dancing school for girls.

WILLIAMSBURG, August 19, 1775.

THE Subscriber begs Leave to inform the Public, that she intends to open a DANCING SCHOOL on Friday next, for young Ladies; she therefore hopes the Gentlemen and Ladies will be enough in sending their Daughters. She flatters herself she shall be able to give entire Satisfaction, as no Care or Pains on her part will be wanting. Her days for teaching are Fridays and Saturdays, every Week; the Price 20s. Entrance and 4£. a Year. The School will be kept at Mr. Blovet Pasteur's.
SARAH HALLAM.

(Virginia Gazette [Dixon and Hunter] 19 August 1775)

At this time Blovet Pasteur owned lots 272 and 273 of block 26 on the north side of Nicholson Street, which are marked on the plat following this page. Mrs. Hallam's dancing school probably opened at this location.

Entries in Humphrey Harwood's ledger for 1776-1780 seem to indicate that ~s. Hallam rented from John Lewis, who owned lot 30 of block 2 on York Road; it is marked on the accompanying map. (The building on that site known as the Powell-Hallam House was moved in 1928 to Francis Street and in 1954 to its present location on Tyler Street.)

The Morton-Goddin House (lot 23 on Waller Street) is another possible location of Mrs. Hallam's residence from 1776 through the l780s. This too is marked on the following plat.

Mrs. Hallam ran a boarding school for girls from 1783 to 1785 at least, for Sally Harris of Hampton was one of her student boarders in those years (York County Wills and Inventories 23, p. 404). She was still teaching in September 1792 because St. George Tucker paid her for his children's schooling. (We don't know if Mrs. Hallam was still taking in boarders at this time or operating a "day school.")

She died on 27 November 1792 (William C. Galt to his brother, Galt Manuscripts). According to another letter in the Galt collection, Sarah Hallam's place as local school mistress was filled after her death by Mrs. Blacgrove (Lucretia Craig to Dr. Galt in London).

Francis Russworm, 1771

Francis Russworm was best known as a musician. There is only one advertisement of his teaching dance:

FRANCIS RUSSWORM,
BEGS Leave to acquaint the young Gentlemen in and about Williamsburg that he shall open School on Monday the 3d. of June, at Mr. Singleton's House [Bassett Hall], to teaching the VIOLIN, GERMAN and COMMON FLUTES. His Terms may be known by inquiring at the Post Office, and where those Gentlemen who intend becoming Scholars will please to subscribe their Names.

⸫ He will wait upon young Ladies at their own Homes, to teach them to dance a Minuet after the newest and most fashionable Method.

Two years later the Gazette announced that "Mr. Francis Russworm, of Nansemond County, who played such a sweet Fiddle, and was a worthy good-tempered Man, had the Misfortune to be drowned a few Days ago in crossing over some Ferry." A few months later Samuel Nelson praised him in poetry as a social being, brother Mason, and musician (Virginia Gazette [Purdie and Dixon] 9 September 1771).

John K'Dore, 1779

A single advertisement identifies this dancing master:

THE subscriber lately from France intend [sic] keeping a dancing school in this city and at King William courthouse. He proposes to teach the minuet in the neatest and newest manner, and will do every thing in his power to satisfy the Gentlemen and Ladies who employ him. He also proposes to keep a fencing and French school at the above places. Those Gentlemen who choose to favour him with their custom, will leave their names with Captain Laport next door to Mrs. Vobe's [King's Arms Tavern]. JOHN K'DORE. (Virginia Gazette [Dixon] 17 July 1779)

James E. Morrison suggests that K'Dore was the same as Jean Cadou. There is no real basis for this, other than the similarity of their names and the dates of their ads.

Jean Cadou, 1779

Very little is known about this dancing master. Two newspaper notices a week apart give the only available information.

MONSIEUR JEAN CADOU, takes this publick method of acquainting the Gentlemen and Ladies, that he intend [sic] opening a DANCING SCHOOL in this city. Those who choose to encourage him will please send or write to him at Mr. Willaim Davenports [Chiswell-Bucktrout House] where he lodges. He likewise propose teaching Gentlemen to FENCE in all its different branches, and will wait upon them by inquiring as above. (Virginia Gazette [Dixon] 13 November 1779)

WILLIAMSBURG, October 19, 1779.

MONSIEUR JEAN CADOU intends opening a DANCING-SCHOOL, on Monday next, at the house of Mr. Cornelius De Foreest [Morton House on Waller Street?], and will teach on Mondays and Tuesdays, for 50 dollars per month. He will also teach Ladies the FRENCH LANGUAGE, either at their own houses, or at the house or Mr. De Foreest: Pride the same as for dancing. Gentlemen may make application to him at Captain William Davenport's, in the back street. (Virginia Gazette [Dixon] 20 November 1779)

James E. Morrison's suggestion that Cadou was the same as John K'Dore is without any real basis.

Charles Cheate/Cheale, before 1676, Tidewater area

Social Life of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century by Philip Alexander Bruce cites Cheate as the earliest dancing master in any of the colonies. He was

accompanied by his servant, Clason Wheeler, a fiddler. They appear to have taken an active part on the popular side in the Insurrection of 1676, and when it failed, fled to New England, for safety, a harvor of refuge, however, in which their ability to teach their art was not likely to assist them in earning a livelihood. Cheate, and men following the same calling, hardly confined themselves in Virginia to instructions in dancing

Mr. Staton, Lower Norfolk County, 1676

There is only reference to this dancing master; he is mentioned in the will of George Lawson, Jr. of the eastern branch of the Elizabeth River in Lower Norfolk County. This will was written in 1676 and includes among the debts to be covered by his estate "To mr. Staton dancing master P rect 10s. 10d."

Ephraim Hubbard, Augusta County, 1763

The only readily available reference to this dancing master is in Mary Stanard's Colonial Virginia: Its People and Customs. There are no references to this name in the Virginia Gazette Index; and Swem's Virginia Historical Index contains only one entry from it, a Lancaster County marriage bond of 15 July 1749 between Ephraim Hubbard and Susannah Edmunds.

James Robinson, Augusta County, 1763

The only readily available reference to this dancing master is in Mary Stanard's Colonial Virginia: Its People and Customs. While the name—which is a fairly common one—appears several time in both Swem's Virginia Historical Index and the Virginia Gazette Index, none is identified as a dancing master or as living in Augusta County.

Mrs. Lewis, Nelson County, 1770-1772

The only readily available reference to this dancing mistress comes from Alexander Brown's The Cabells and their Kin. There are entries for "Mrs. Lewis" in both Swem'S Virginia Historical Index and the Virginia Gazette Index, but without her first name there is little chance or learning more about this dancing mistress.

Francis Christian, Northern Neck, 1770-1779

[The following is copied from Norman Benson, "The Itinerant Dancing and Music Masters of Eighteenth-century America," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1963, pp. 57-64]:

Francis Christian was another itinerant musician of German origin. He first appeared as dancing and music master at Mount Vernon in 1770.⁷² A year or two later, Christian was one of the most active dancing masters among the wealthy plantations of Virginia's Northern Neck. His teaching circuit covered the plantation seats of Bushfield, Stratford, Wakefield, Sabine Hall, Mount Airy, Nomini Hall, Mount Vernon, and the towns of Port Royal and Fredericksburg.

His actions can be traced from Carter's Letter Books and Fithian's Journal. One fall day, October 30, 1773, Philip Vickers Fithian, tutor lately arrived from Princeton, rode with Carter's eldest son, Benjamin, to a local store seven miles away. After making their purchases, they rode an additional fifteen miles to Mr. Fauntleroy's plantation. There Fithian was introduced to Mr. Christian, the dancing master.⁷³ The Fauntleroy plantation lay near the present town of Warsaw, Virginia, on the north bank of the Rappahannock River.

By December 17, 1773, Christian's round of dancing days had brought him to Nomini Hall of Councillor Robert Carter, one of the wealthiest men of all Virginia. For that day, Fithian dismissed his scholars until the following Monday so that Mr. Christian could teach dancing.⁷⁴ Christian had six scholars on that dance day. By noon, the company of scholars and adults 33. had grown to seventeen persons. Fithian left the following account of the assembly.

There were present of Grown persons Mr & Mrs Carter, Mrs Lee, & Miss Jenny Corbin; young Misses about Eleven: Seven young Fellows, including myself;—After Breakfast, we all retired into the Dancing-Room, & after the Scholars had their Lesson singly round Mr Christian, very politely, requested me to step a Minuet; I excused myself however, but signified my peculiar pleasure in the Accuracy of their performance—There were several Minuets danced with great ease and propriety; after which the whole company Joined in country-dances, and it was indeed beautiful to admiration, to see such a number of young persons, set off by dress to the best Advantage, moving easily, the sound of well performed Music, and with perfect regularity, tho' apparently in the utmost Disorder—The Dance continued til two, we dined at half after three—soon after Dinner we repaired to the Dancing-Room again; I observe in the course of the lessons, that Mr Christian is punctual, and rigid in his discipline, so strict indeed that he struck two of the young Misses for a fault in the course of their performance, even in the presence of the Mother of one of them! And he rebuked one of the young Fellows so highly as to tell him he must alter his manner, which he had observed through the Course of the Dance, to be insolent, and wanton, or absent himself from the School—I thought this a sharp reproof, to a young Gentleman of seventeen, before a large number of ladies!⁷⁵

After it became too dark to dance, the company called for candles and the dance was resumed.

When the candles were lighted we all repaired, for the last time, into the dancing Room; first each couple danced a Minuet; then all joined as before in the country Dances, these continued till half after Seven when Mr Christian retired; …⁷⁶

34.

Although Fithian does not mention who performed the music or what instruments were used, several conjectures can be made. Robert Carter owned the following instruments and kept them at Nomini Hall: harpsichord, forte-piano, guitar, harmonica, violin and several German flutes.⁷⁷ Carter was proficient upon all of these instruments. In addition, like many other wealthy planters, he had an indentured servant-musician. John, his table servant, was a violinist who often played for dances at the Carter home.⁷⁸ Fithian, himself, was a flautist and may have taken a hand in the music.⁷⁹ Finally, Christian was a violinist as were most of the dancing masters. It is quite likely, then, that at least three different instruments were assembled to furnish the music: the harpsichord, the flute, and the violin. For a definite mention of instruments used to 35. accompany dancing, see the following account of a ball at the Lee plantation.⁸⁰

Christian continued teaching at the other plantations about Nomini Hall. During the next several years, he held dancing days at the Tayloe, Lee, Carter, Washington, Custis, Fauntleroy, Corbin, and Turbeville plantations.⁸¹

Landon Carter of Sabine Hall was not as enthusiastic about Mr. Christian's dancing days as were some of his neighbors. In one of his letters, dated May 7, 1774, he asserts that he is happy that "Christian has stopped his dancing in the neighborhood, as the school boys lost two days in every three weeks."⁸² Fithian, the schoolmaster from Princeton, was so charmed by the "dance days" he witnessed that he recorded his regrets that dancing had not been a part of his own education. Dancing is an "innocent and an ornamental, and most certainly, 36. in this province is a necessary qualification for a person to appear even decent in Company!"⁸³

An incident in Christian's life having nothing to do with music is significant for what it reveals of the social status of the itinerant musician. Landon Carter of Sabine Hall writes:

Mr. Christian, the dancing master, came here on a letter I sent to take his son and bring him up to the business of a steward over gentlemen's estates. He is desirous to bind for 5 years, and the two last he is to have £10 [$25] the year wages, I agreed to it, and he is to come on place the last of next month.⁸⁴

It was common for the wealthy planter to enter into a type of indenture agreement with the sons of other men in order to train them as plantation stewards. The point to observe is that Christian's son was offered the same training given to the sons of gentry. For some reason or other, Christian's son did not take to the training, and he was released to his father on February 12, 1777.

A dancing master's itinerary can be pretty easily 37. reconstructed through the plantation names. The frequency of his visits can likewise be established when Landon Carter mentions the loss of two school days in every three weeks. His social status can be inferred from a variety of incidents. When one attempts to uncover economic data, however, results are discouraging. Usually, the wages of the itinerant dancing and music master are described as several pounds a year for each pupil.

In Christian's case, Robert Carter left a record of definite monetary figures that one may take as representative of that obtainable from a wealthy patron. On May 14, 1777, Carter entered the following in his Letter Book:

Mr Francis Christian, dancing Master to Cash 2 £ [$5] to Satisfy ye fee called Entrance for two Scholars—Viz; Miss Frances Carter and Miss Betty Landon Carter—Note—FC dancing master charge 6 £ [$15] per each Scholar—his Price was 5 £ [$12.50] formerly.—⁸⁵

Since Christian seems to have struck a rough average of six scholars at each dancing school day at Nomini Hall, he may be credited with approximately £30 [$75] per year for a salary. He probably made more than this for the number of scholars fluctuated considerably.

Christian's patronage from Nomini Hall ended in 1779 38. when Carter wrote the following letter regarding the dancing scholars.

Sir—My Daughters Betty L. Carter and Harriot Carter your former Scholars are not to attend you any longer. I myself and Wife are of the opinion that Dancing is not a Christian Qualification—; that if there be no Evils in the Act of dancing it is often productive of a Revel—and it is admitted by every denomination of Christians that there is no Reveling in the New Jerusalem.⁸⁶

John K'Dore, King William Courthouse, 1779

K'Dore's 17 July 1779 advertisement in the Virginia Gazette stated he would teach dancing both in Williamsburg and at King William Courthouse. See page 25.

Mr. DuGraves, Berkeley County, 1782

The diary of Sarah Fouace Nourse of "Piedmont," Berkeley County, includes these few references to this dancing master, his students, and their dancing days:

[Original of diary owned by Alderman Library, University of Virginia; typescript in Research Archives, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.]

A. M. Quesnay, Richmond, 1785-1786

These two newspaper notices indicate that A. M. Quesnay ran a dancing school in late 1785 and early 1786:

Richmond, Dec. 22, 1785.

Mr. Quesnay begs leave to inform the public, that he intends to remain in this City as long as the encouragement he meets with at present, shall continue…He engages at all events, to remain for one year, from the first of February next.

As the DANCING SCHOOL properly understood, is recommended in the education of children for the only intention to give them a genteel carriage, and ease of manners in company; it is improper to employ the precious time of their infancy, to this trifling part; but they should have some time to study other accomplishments more useful, but unhappily very much neglected at present; therefore the Dancing School of the Academy, will for the future be attended only three days in a week, and the other three days, shall be employed for those who shall wish to be instructed in DRAWING and PAINTING in general; MUSIC and the FOREIGN LANGUAGES. — The Dancing Scholars for the future, shall pay 4l.^* for thirty six days besides the entrance.

January 26, 1786

"To the public Having engaged myself in the public papers, to remain in this city for one year longer from this time, it may be necessary to give information that I shall entirely quit teaching at the expiration of the time before mentioned.

When I first undertook this business, my intention was to erect an ACADEMY, that might probably prove useful to the community, and consequently honorable to myself. But finding that the general disposition of mind in every place where I have attempted it (at my great expence of both time and money) on this continent, rather inclined to encourage
DANCING.
in preference to any of the more useful branches proposed in this ACADEMY, I do not think proper to run the risk of dishonouring myself in the pursuit of such a business.

All these who shall engage in the DANCING SCHOOL, five or six months, before the expiration of the time, may be assured to be completed enough so as not to be obliged to go to any other school."
A.M. Quesnay

Richmond, January 10, 1736."

(both ads from Virginia Gazette, or Weekly Advertiser [Richmond])

Mr. Capurs, Richmond, 1787

The following advertisement is the only available reference to Mr. Capurs:

"MR. CAPURS
From the Royal Opera in Paris, intends opening a Dancing School, at his house on Shockoe hill, (lately occupied by Mr. Quesnay) opposite the Capitol; where ladies and gentlemen that wish to enter as his scholars, will be admitted on the following terms: One guinea entrance, and twelve pounds per annum, payable every month in advance.

His knowledge in that line, gives him reason to hope this undertaking will meet with the approbation of the public, whose patronage it will be his study to deserve, by the most assiduous and regular attendance on his pupils. He will teach them the plain minuet, the minuet of the Graces, the Hunting, and the minuet de la Cour, with their respective Gavotes; the Allemande, with all the steps and figures for Cotillions, Country Dances, and the Hornpipe.

For the conveniency of those gentlemen who cannot attend his public school, he will open a private one, each Wednesday and Saturday evening; and the public school will be attended every Tuesday and Friday, in the morning and afternoon.

Mr. Capurs will take scholars to instruct in Music, viz. harpsichord, forte piano, violin, German flute, guitar, and violincello. — Will also teach to read, write, and speak properly the French language, at the usual prices. Richmond, January 1, 1787."

(Virginia Gazette, or Weekly Advertiser [Richmond], 1 February 1787)

Mr. Cenley, Fredericksburg, 1788

Mr. Cenley advertised in the 5 June 1788 Fredericksburg Gazette that he taught French and dancing (Virginia Magazine XIII, p. 425).